The Story of Passover: From Covenant to Redemption
Passover is one of the most fundamental holidays in Jewish life, commemorating the redemption of the Jewish people from Egyptian slavery and their emergence as a nation bound to God through Torah and commandments. More than just a historical event, Passover is a living memory that shapes Jewish identity and faith. Every year, the experience of the Exodus from Egypt is relived through storytelling, commandments, and symbolic rituals. This chapter provides an overview of Passover, its origins and its historical and religious significance.
The story of Passover begins centuries before the Exodus, with the covenant between God and Abraham. The journey to Egypt was foreshadowed in a pivotal moment known as the “Covenant Between the Parts,” a profound encounter with the Divine recorded in Genesis 15.
In this prophetic vision, Abraham was instructed to bring several animals, cut them in half, and arrange the pieces opposite each other. As the sun was setting, a deep sleep fell upon Abraham, and God revealed the future of his descendants:
“Know with certainty that your offspring shall be strangers in a land not their own, they will serve them, and they will oppress them four hundred years. But I will also judge the nation that they serve, and afterwards they will leave with great wealth. But you shall come to your ancestors in peace; you shall be buried at a good old age. And the fourth generation shall return here, for the iniquity of the Amorite shall not yet be full until then.” (Genesis 15:13-16)
This prophecy laid out the entire arc of the Egyptian exile before it began—the enslavement, the suffering, the ultimate redemption, and the return to the Promised Land. In it, God made two significant promises to Abraham: that his children would be enslaved and eventually redeemed, and that they would inherit the land of Israel.
The actual descent to Egypt occurred through a series of divinely orchestrated events centered around Joseph, Abraham’s great-grandson. Joseph, the favored son of Jacob, aroused the jealousy of his brothers:
“And when his brothers saw that their father loved him more than all his brothers, they hated him, and could not speak peaceably to him.” (Genesis 37:4)
This fraternal hatred culminated in a plot to kill Joseph, which was modified to selling him into slavery instead. As the Torah recounts:
“And Midianite merchantmen passed by; and they drew and lifted up Joseph out of the pit, and sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver; and they brought Joseph to Egypt.” (Genesis 37:28)
Through a remarkable series of events, Joseph rose from slavery and imprisonment to become viceroy of Egypt, second only to Pharaoh himself. Divine wisdom enabled him to interpret Pharaoh’s dreams as foretelling seven years of plenty followed by seven years of famine. Joseph implemented a national plan to store grain during the years of abundance:
“And he gathered up all the food of the seven years which were in the land of Egypt, and laid up the food in the cities… And Joseph gathered grain as the sand of the sea, very much, until they stopped counting, for it was without number.” (Genesis 41:48-49)
When the famine struck, it affected not only Egypt but also Canaan, where Jacob and his family lived. Hearing that food was available in Egypt, Jacob sent his sons to purchase grain. Through a complex series of encounters, Joseph eventually revealed himself to his brothers:
“And Joseph said to his brothers, ‘I am Joseph; does my father still live?’ And his brothers could not answer him; for they were terrified at his presence.” (Genesis 45:3)
Joseph then instructed his family to relocate to Egypt, where he could provide for them during the remaining years of famine:
“And you shall dwell in the land of Goshen, and you shall be near to me, you, and your children, and your children’s children, and your flocks, and your herds, and all that you have. And there I will sustain you; for there are yet five years of famine; lest you, and your household, and all that you have, come to poverty.” (Genesis 45:10-11)
Jacob, fearing that his family would get stuck in Egypt, did not go down to Egypt eagerly but with trepidation. His fear was not unfounded; as Rabbi Hezekiah ben Manoah, a 13th-century French commentator known as the Chizkuni explains, Jacob knew that the decree given in the days of his grandfather Abraham—that his descendants would be strangers in a foreign land and endure servitude—was likely beginning with this journey to Egypt. His concern was not only about the impending hardships but also about the fate of God’s promise that his descendants would inherit the land of Canaan. However, God reassured him through the divine vision, appearing to him specifically to address his fears:
“And God spoke to Israel in visions of the night, and said: ‘Jacob, Jacob.’ And he said: ‘Here am I.’ And He said: ‘I am God, the God of your father; fear not to go down to Egypt; for I will there make of you a great nation. I will go down with you to Egypt; and I will also surely bring you up again; and Joseph shall put his hand upon your eyes.'” (Genesis 46:2-4)
While confirming that the exile would indeed begin, God also reminded Jacob that this was part of the larger divine plan: just as the prophecy of exile was now unfolding, so too was the promise that his family would grow into a great nation. Furthermore, God assured him that his descendants would not remain in Egypt forever—He Himself would bring them back to their land. With this divine reassurance, Jacob proceeded on his journey.
Jacob’s entire family—seventy souls in all—descended to Egypt. They settled in Goshen, a fertile region where they could maintain their distinct identity and practices:
“Israel settled in the land of Egypt, in the region of Goshen; and they acquired property in it, and were fruitful, and multiplied exceedingly.” (Genesis 47:27)
What began as a temporary relocation to survive a famine became an extended sojourn. The children of Israel prospered and multiplied in Egypt, fulfilling God’s promise to Abraham that his descendants would become a great nation. Yet this prosperity would eventually lead to the Egyptian oppression also foretold in the Covenant Between the Parts.
This descent to Egypt represents the fulfillment of divine purpose—the crucible in which the children of Israel would transform from a family into a nation, through suffering, refinement, and ultimate redemption. As Rabbi Yaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg (1785–1865) explains in commentary on Deuteronomy 4:20, the true purpose of the Egyptian slavery was to purify the Jewish people, much like gold is refined in an iron crucible. Through this process, the impurities were removed, and only those who remained were chosen to receive the Torah.
Without this period of hardship, the Israelites would not have been prepared to accept the Torah’s obligations, as they would have been too accustomed to unrestricted freedom. Thus, their suffering under Egyptian oppression was a necessary step in shaping them into a nation ready to fulfill their covenant with God.
The stay in Egypt, which began with honor and prosperity, eventually turned to bitter servitude. Yet even this was part of the divine plan revealed to Abraham, setting the stage for the dramatic events of the Exodus that we commemorate each year at Passover, and an eternal bond between a nation and its God.
The Book of Exodus opens by recounting how the descendants of Jacob prospered and multiplied in Egypt:
“And the children of Israel were fruitful, and increased abundantly, and multiplied, and grew exceedingly mighty; and the land was filled with them.” (Exodus 1:7)
This blessing of growth, however, soon became the cause of their suffering. A new Pharaoh arose who did not know Joseph or appreciate the contributions his family had made to Egypt:
“Now there arose a new king over Egypt, who knew not Joseph. And he said unto his people: ‘Behold, the people of the children of Israel are too many and too mighty for us. Come, let us deal wisely with them, lest they multiply, and it come to pass, that, when there befalls any war, they also join themselves unto our enemies, and fight against us, and get them up out of the land.'” (Exodus 1:8-10)
This fear led to increasingly harsh measures of oppression. First, the Egyptians imposed taskmasters over the Israelites to afflict them with burdens:
“Therefore they set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh store-cities, Pithom and Raamses.” (Exodus 1:11)
But the more the Israelites were oppressed, the more they multiplied (Exodus 1:12). In response, Pharaoh intensified the persecution:
“And they made their lives bitter with hard service, in mortar and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field; all their service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigor.” (Exodus 1:14)
When this failed to curb their growth, Pharaoh took more drastic action, commanding the Hebrew midwives to kill all newborn males. As medieval commentator Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki (Rashi) explains in his commentary on Exodus 1:16, Pharaoh specifically targeted male infants because his astrologers had foreseen that a male savior would arise among the Israelites.
The midwives, however, feared God and refused to carry out this genocidal decree:
“But the midwives feared God, and did not as the king of Egypt commanded them, but saved the men-children alive.” (Exodus 1:17)
According to the sages, the midwives Shiphrah and Puah were none other than Jochebed and Miriam, Moses’ mother and sister, who risked their lives to preserve the next generation.
Thwarted by the righteousness of the midwives, Pharaoh then commanded all his people to cast every Hebrew male child into the Nile River. It was into this world of oppression and danger that Moses was born.
Moses’ mother hid him for three months, and when she could no longer conceal him, she placed him in a basket among the reeds of the Nile. Pharaoh’s daughter discovered the child while bathing in the river and took pity on him:
“And the daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe in the river… And she saw the basket among the reeds, and sent her handmaid to fetch it. And she opened it, and saw the child; and, behold, the boy wept. And she had compassion on him, and said: ‘This is one of the Hebrews’ children.'” (Exodus 2:5-6)
Moses’ sister, who had been watching, arranged for the baby’s own mother to nurse him. Thus, Moses grew up in Pharaoh’s house while maintaining a connection to his Hebrew roots. This dual upbringing was providential, preparing Moses to serve as both a leader familiar with royal governance and as a faithful representative of his own people.
As an adult, Moses witnessed an Egyptian taskmaster beating a Hebrew slave. Moved to action, he killed the Egyptian and hid his body. When he realized the deed was known, Moses fled to Midian, where he married and became a shepherd.
It was while tending his father-in-law’s flock that Moses encountered the pivotal moment of the burning bush:
“And the angel of the Lord appeared unto him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush; and he looked, and, behold, the bush burned with fire, and the bush was not consumed.” (Exodus 3:2)
When Moses turned aside to investigate this wonder, God called to him and revealed His plan of redemption:
“And the Lord said: ‘I have surely seen the affliction of My people that are in Egypt, and have heard their cry by reason of their taskmasters; for I know their pains… Come now therefore, and I will send you to Pharaoh, that you may bring forth My people the children of Israel out of Egypt.'” (Exodus 3:7, 10)
Moses hesitated, questioning his worthiness for such a mission five different times. But God reassured him, providing signs to convince the people that he was indeed sent by God and appointing his brother Aaron as his spokesman. Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, in his commentary on Exodus 3:11-12, notes that this humility was precisely what qualified Moses for leadership: “Just that, in which you see your complete unsuitability for the work, makes you the most suitable for it.”
Armed with God’s assurance, Moses returned to Egypt and, together with Aaron, confronted Pharaoh with the divine command:
“Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: Let My people go, that they may hold a feast unto Me in the wilderness.” (Exodus 5:1)
Pharaoh refused, asking, “Who is the Lord, that I should hearken unto His voice to let Israel go?” (Exodus 5:2). Not only did he deny the request, but he increased the Israelites’ burden, requiring them to gather their own straw while maintaining the same quota of bricks.
This refusal set the stage for the Ten Plagues, through which God would demonstrate His supreme power over all the forces of nature and over the gods of Egypt:
The Bible repeatedly emphasizes that the plagues served an educational purpose. For example:
“And the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord, when I stretch forth My hand upon Egypt, and bring out the children of Israel from among them.” (Exodus 7:5)
“Thus says the Lord: ‘By this you shall know that I am the Lord.”‘ (Exodus 7:17)
“For this time I will send all My plagues upon your heart, and upon your servants, and upon your people; that you may know that there is none like Me in all the earth.” (Exodus 9:14)
“But for this purpose have I let you remain, to show you My power, and that My name may be declared throughout all the earth.” (Exodus 9:16)
These verses, among others, make clear that the plagues were not merely punishments but demonstrations designed to teach Pharaoh, the Egyptians, and even the Israelites about God’s unparalleled power and sovereignty.
According to Rabbi Isaac Abarbanel in his commentary on Exodus 7, each plague systematically dismantled an aspect of Egyptian religious belief and addressed Pharaoh’s threefold denial of God’s nature.
First, Pharaoh denied God’s very existence. When Moses said, “Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel, ‘Let My people go’” (Exodus 5:1), Pharaoh responded, “I do not know the Lord” (Exodus 5:2), rejecting the existence of God. He believed that nature and the celestial bodies governed the world, not a supreme Deity.
Second, Pharaoh denied divine providence—the idea that God supervises human affairs and renders judgment accordingly. This was reflected in his defiant question, “Who is the Lord that I should obey His voice?” (Exodus 5:2), implying that even if such a God existed, He had no authority over earthly rulers like himself.
Third, Pharaoh denied God’s ability to alter the natural order at will, which explains his stubborn refusal to heed Moses’ warnings, despite the miraculous signs that followed.
Abarbanel explains that the plagues were arranged to directly counter these three denials. The first three plagues (blood, frogs, and lice) established God’s existence, as God declared before the first plague, “By this you shall know that I am the Lord” (Exodus 7:17). The next three plagues (wild beasts, cattle disease, and boils) demonstrated divine providence, with God stating before the plague of wild beasts, “That you may know that I am the Lord in the midst of the land” (Exodus 8:18). The final set of plagues (hail, locusts, and darkness) proved God’s absolute power over nature, as God proclaimed before the hail, “So that you may know that there is none like Me in all the earth” (Exodus 9:14). The tenth plague, the death of the firstborn, served as divine retribution for the Egyptians drowning Hebrew children.
Throughout the first nine plagues, Pharaoh repeatedly hardened his heart, refusing to release the Israelites despite the mounting devastation. Rabbi Obadiah Seforno explains in his commentary on Exodus 7:3 that the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart was not a removal of his free will but rather the strengthening of his resolve to withstand punishments he would otherwise have capitulated to out of self-preservation rather than genuine repentance.
The tenth plague, the death of the firstborn, finally broke Pharaoh’s resistance:
“And Pharaoh rose up in the night, he, and all his servants, and all the Egyptians; and there was a great cry in Egypt; for there was not a house where there was not one dead. And he called for Moses and Aaron by night and said: ‘Rise up, get you forth from among my people, both you and the children of Israel; and go, serve the Lord, as you have said.'” (Exodus 12:30-31)
The final plague—the death of the firstborn—was preceded by special instructions to the Israelites (Exodus 12:3-11). They were commanded to take a lamb on the tenth day of the Hebrew month of Nisan, keep it until the fourteenth day, and then slaughter it at twilight. They were to place some of its blood on the doorposts and lintel of their houses and roast the meat to eat with bitter herbs and unleavened bread:
“And they shall take of the blood, and put it on the two side-posts and on the lintel, upon the houses wherein they shall eat it… And the blood shall be to you for a token upon the houses where you are; and when I see the blood, I will pass over you, and there shall no plague be upon you to destroy you, when I smite the land of Egypt.” (Exodus 12:7, 13)
This first Passover sacrifice instituted what would become the central ritual of the holiday. This act required tremendous courage, as the Egyptians considered sheep to be sacred. By publicly slaughtering the Egyptian deity and marking their homes with its blood, the Israelites demonstrated their rejection of idolatry and their faith in God’s protection.
The next morning, the Israelites departed Egypt in haste, taking their dough before it could become leavened:
“And they baked unleavened cakes of the dough which they brought forth out of Egypt, for it was not leavened; because they were thrust out of Egypt, and could not tarry, neither had they prepared for themselves any provisions.” (Exodus 12:39)
This hasty departure is one of the reasons why we eat unleavened bread (matzah) during Passover.
As the Israelites began their journey out of Egypt and towards the Promised Land, God guided them with visible signs of divine presence:
“And the Lord went before them by day in a pillar of cloud, to lead them the way; and by night in a pillar of fire, to give them light; that they might go by day and by night.” (Exodus 13:21)
God did not lead them by the shortest route to Canaan, which would have taken them through Philistine territory, but rather directed them toward the Red Sea:
“And it came to pass, when Pharaoh had let the people go, that God led them not by the way of the land of the Philistines, although that was near; for God said: ‘Lest the people repent when they see war, and they return to Egypt.'” (Exodus 13:17)
The Israelites’ freedom was soon threatened when Pharaoh, regretting his decision, pursued them with his army:
“And the Egyptians pursued after them, all the horses and chariots of Pharaoh, and his horsemen, and his army, and overtook them encamping by the sea…” (Exodus 14:9)
Trapped between Pharaoh’s forces and the sea, the Israelites feared for their lives. Moses reassured them:
“Fear not, stand still, and see the salvation of the Lord, which He will work for you today; for the Egyptians whom you have seen today, you shall see them again no more forever. The Lord will fight for you, and you shall hold your peace.” (Exodus 14:13-14)
God then instructed Moses to lift his staff over the sea. A strong east wind blew all night, dividing the waters and creating a path of dry land:
“And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground; and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left.” (Exodus 14:22)
The Egyptians pursued them into the sea, but as the Israelites reached the opposite shore, Moses stretched out his hand again, and the waters returned to their normal state, drowning the entire Egyptian army.
The miraculous deliverance at the Red Sea was a defining moment in Israel’s liberation from Egyptian rule. But it was more than just an escape—it was a profound encounter with the divine. As the waters parted and then crashed down upon their oppressors, the Israelites came to a deeper belief in God (Exodus 14:31) and experienced an unparalleled revelation. According to the sages, even the humblest maidservant at the sea witnessed divine visions more extraordinary than those of the prophet Ezekiel. This was not just the birth of a free people, but the awakening of a sacred connection.
In their joy and gratitude, Moses and the Israelites sang a song of praise to God:
“Then sang Moses and the children of Israel this song unto the Lord, and spoke, saying: I will sing unto the Lord, for He is highly exalted; the horse and his rider hath He thrown into the sea.” (Exodus 15:1)
This Song at the Sea is recited daily in Jewish prayers, keeping alive the memory of this foundational moment of redemption and proclamation of God’s sovereignty.
From the shores of the Red Sea, the Israelites began their journey through the wilderness, where they received the Torah at Mount Sinai and were forged into a nation with a distinct spiritual purpose.
The Israelites arrived at Mount Sinai in the third month following the Exodus from Egypt:
“In the third month after the children of Israel were gone forth out of the land of Egypt, the same day came they into the wilderness of Sinai.” (Exodus 19:1)
At Sinai, God proposed a covenant with the people through Moses:
“Now therefore, if you will hearken unto My voice indeed, and keep My covenant, then you shall be My own treasure from among all peoples; for all the earth is Mine; and you shall be unto Me a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation.” (Exodus 19:5-6)
The people unanimously accepted:
“And all the people answered together, and said: ‘All that the Lord has spoken we will do.'” (Exodus 19:8)
God then instructed Moses to prepare the people for a direct divine revelation. The people were to sanctify themselves, wash their garments, and maintain a boundary around the mountain. On the third day, amid thunder, lightning, thick cloud, and the sound of a shofar (ram’s horn), God descended upon Mount Sinai:
“And Mount Sinai was altogether on smoke, because the Lord descended upon it in fire; and the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mount quaked greatly.” (Exodus 19:18)
In this awe-inspiring setting, God spoke the Ten Commandments directly to the entire people—a unique event in human history:
The Ten Commandments established the fundamental principles of the covenant. Rabbi Saadia Gaon, a Jewish philosopher and Torah commentator in Babylonia (882–942 CE), writes that these commandments encompass all 613 mitzvot (commandments) of the Torah, with each of the Ten Commandments serving as a category heading for related laws. The rest of the laws were then given to Moses on Mount Sinai and the Tabernacle was constructed.
The experience of the giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai was significant for a number of reasons. According to Rabbi Judah Halevi, a Sephardic Jewish poet, physician and philosopher (c. 1075 – 1141), in his philosophical work The Kuzari, this mass revelation to millions of witnesses distinguishes the Jewish faith from all others, as it cannot be fabricated or distorted in transmission. Furthermore, the medieval Jewish scholar known as Nachmanides explains in his introduction to Exodus that the redemption from Egypt was not complete until the people received the Torah and built the Tabernacle, establishing God’s presence among them:
“When they came to Mount Sinai and made the Tabernacle, and the Holy One, blessed be He, caused His Divine Presence to dwell again amongst them, they returned to the status of their fathers when the ‘sod eloka’ (counsel of G-d) was upon their tents and “they were those who constituted the Chariot of the Holy One.” Then they were considered redeemed.” (Nachmanides, introduction to Exodus)
Physical freedom from slavery was merely the precondition for the spiritual freedom of Torah. The Exodus was not complete until the Israelites had accepted upon themselves the Torah and entered into a covenant with God, as God Himself said to Moses at the burning bush: “And when you have freed the people from Egypt, you shall worship God at this mountain” (Genesis 3:12).
The intertwining of the Exodus and the Sinai revelation is emphasized in the first of the Ten Commandments, which identifies God specifically as the One “who brought you out of the land of Egypt.” The Jewish people’s relationship with God is based not only on His role as Creator (which would apply to all humanity) but on His role as Redeemer, which created a special relationship with Israel that was solidified by entering into a covenant on Sinai.
It was only once the Jewish people became servants of God that they were entirely free, and their role in the world was solidified. Once this was established, they could continue on their journey to the Holy Land where they would establish a society governed by divine law. In Israel, the full expression of Torah could be realized. This land was promised to their forefathers, and it was here that the Jewish people could fulfill their mission of being “a light unto the nations,” as Isaiah prophesied: “For out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the word of the LORD from Jerusalem” (Isaiah 2:3).
This historical narrative forms the foundation of the Passover holiday, which Jews are commanded to observe throughout the generations. As God instructed Moses and Aaron: “This day shall be to you one of remembrance: you shall celebrate it as a festival to the LORD throughout the ages; you shall celebrate it as an institution for all time” (Exodus 12:14). The Torah further emphasizes this obligation: “And you shall observe this as an institution for all time, for you and for your descendants” (Exodus 12:24). Through the annual celebration of Passover, each generation fulfills the divine commandment to remember and relive the Exodus experience and pass it on to the next generation. This observance ensures that the transformative journey from slavery to covenant remains a living memory that continues to shape Jewish identity and faith.
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By: Rabbi Elie Mischel
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